The Impact of Smoking on Periodontal Diseases: Pathophysiology, Clinical Manifestations, and Implications for Treatment
The Impact of Smoking on Periodontal Diseases: Pathophysiology, Clinical Manifestations, and Implications for Treatment Authors [Nooshin Gomnam]¹ Abstract Smoking remains a major modifiable risk factor in the onset and progression of periodontal disease . It adversely affects vascular supply, host immune response, microbial ecology, and cellular repair mechanisms, leading to worsened clinical outcomes and impaired healing. This review summarizes recent evidence regarding biological mechanisms, clinical features, and treatment outcomes, with emphasis on the beneficial effects of smoking cessation. The purpose is to inform clinicians and researchers of updated findings and support integrated management strategies. Keywords Smoking; Periodontitis; Nicotine; Immune response; Host-microbiome interactions; Smoking cessation ; Treatment outcomes Introduction Periodontal disease, encompassing gingivitis and periodontitis, involves inflammation and destruction of the supporting tissues of...
